“Freedom–enslavement” paradox in consumers’ adoption of smart transportation: A comparative analysis of three technologies

Rapid advancement in urbanisation has profoundly altered consumer travel using intelligent transportation technologies. However, as technological progress persists, inherent tensions in consumer–technology interactions have surfaced. Based on the technological paradox and learning tension theories, this study examines how consumers' interactions with intelligent transportation technologies influence the systems' adoption. Three representative transportation technologies–electronic toll collection systems, ride-sharing platforms and fully autonomous vehicles–are compared. Data were collected using a questionnaire administered to 524 participants. The findings revealed that, while these technologies allowed consumers’ significant freedom perception, they also introduced new dependencies, invoking a perception of enslavement. Surprisingly, the induced learning tensions showed a positive relationship with technology adoption, which suggests that the challenges encountered during the learning process can enhance user engagement and acceptance. Furthermore, the study emphasised how perceptions of freedom and enslavement evolve with technological advancement in different transportation contexts, indicating their complex interplay with technology adoption intention. The findings enhance our understanding of the technological paradox theory and elucidate the dual role of learning tensions. The results also provide theoretical and practical guidance for technology developers and policymakers to design more human-centric intelligent transportation systems.