Traditional norms and political inequality: assessing gender disparities in online political participation across 51 countries

While studies suggest that resource and ideological differences contribute to the gender gap in online political participation, the influence of environmental factors and social norms remains underexplored. Using a cross-national dataset and the framework of social cognitive theory, we explore (1) the existence of the gender gap in online political participation; (2) the effect of individuals’ embedded norms about traditional gender roles on participation; and (3) the role of contextual factors. A multi-level analysis reveals gender disparities in online political participation and highlights traditional gender norms hindering participation. Additionally, a country’s free political environment directly influences individuals’ political participation. Furthermore, this study identifies a three-way interaction between gender, beliefs, and the free political environment in impacting participation. It reveals a distinct pattern that in countries with lower freedom scores, the gender gap is not significantly influenced by the negative effects of traditional gender beliefs whereas in countries with more freedom, the restrictive effects of traditional beliefs in participation are more evident, especially for women. This study offers insights into understanding digital political inequality theoretically and practically.